DISCUSSION PAPER 9
Occupational Health and Safety
- An Employer Perspective
©Minister of Supply and Services Canada 1992
Cat. No. JS62-78/1992
ISBN 0-662-58868-1
Royal Canadian Mounted Police
External Review Committee
Chairman
Honourable René J. Marin, OMM, QC, LLD
Vice-Chairman
F. Jennifer Lynch, QC
Members
Joanne McLeod, CM, QC
William Millar
Executive Director
Simon Coakeley
The Committee publishes a series of discussion papers to elicit public comment to
assist the Committee in the formulation of recommendations pursuant to the Royal
Canadian Mounted Police Act (1986). The views expressed In this paper are not
necessarily the views of the Committee.
Comments are invited; they should be addressed to:
Simon Coakeley
Executive Director
RCMP External Review Committee
Postal Box 1159, Station "B"
Ottawa, Ontario
K1P 5R2
Fax: (613) 990-8969
Discussion Paper Series
Number 9: Occupational Health and Safety
Director of Research
Lynne Bennett
with the assistance of:
Simon Coakeley
Yvonne Martin
Suzanne Gervais
Consultants:
Shimon L. Dolan, Ph.D.
Marie Reine van Ameringen, Ph.D.
Also published:
Discussion paper 1
Suspensions - A Balanced View
Suspensions
- Consultation Report
Discussion paper 5
Employee Assistance Programs - Philosophy, theory and practice
Employee Assistance Programs
- Consultation Report
Discussion paper 2
Relocation - A Painless Process?
Relocation
- Consultation Report
Discussion paper 6
Disciplinary Dismissal - A Police Perspective
Disciplinary Dismissal
- Consultation Report
Discussion paper 3
Medical Discharge - A Police Perspective
Medical Discharge
- Consultation Report
Discussion paper 7
Off-Duty Conduct
Off-Duty Conduct
- Consultation Report
Discussion paper 4
Post-Complaint Management - The Impact of Complaint Procedures on Police Discipline
Post-Complaint Management
- Consultation Report
Discussion paper 8
Sanctioning Police Misconduct - General Principles
FOREWORD
This discussion paper is the ninth in a series
produced by the Research Directorate of the RCMP External Review Committee.
The Committee and the consultants who carried out
the research would like to thank the following people for their time and cooperation.
Mr. Simon Bigras
Health and Safety Prevention Coordinator,
Personnel Relations Department
Sureté du Québec
Mr. Alain Devost
Health and Safety Prevention Advisor,
Association paritaire pour la santé et la sécurité du travail, secteur affaires
municipales (APSAM)
Mrs. Roxanne Dugas M.Sc.
Consultant in work relations and health and safety prevention,
Mr. James M. Kingston
Canadian Police Association
Mr. Georges Pinchaud
Director of technical services,
Health and Safety Department
Fraternité des policiers de la
Communauté urbaine de Montréal
M. Patrick H. Shafer
Senior Environmental Health and Safety Advisor
Health Services Directorate
RCMP
Mrs. Jeanne Taussig
Librarian
Association paritaire pour la santé et la sécurité du travail, secteur affaires
municipales (APSAM)
Dr Michelle Tremblay m.d.
Clinical specialist in Occupational Health and Safety
Département de santé communautaire
Hôpital Saint Luc, Montréal
Professor Gilles Trudeau
Ecole de relations industrielles
Université de Montréal
This discussion paper could not have been written without the assistance of these
individuals.
Simon Coakeley
Executive Director
RCMP External Review Committee
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY: AN OVERVIEW
2.1 What is Occupational Health and Safety?
2.2 The Growing Importance of OH&S
2.3 Basic Figures about Health and Safety
2.3.1 Costs and Benefits
2.3.2 General Accident Profile
LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS
3.1 A Historical Note
3.2 The Canadian Framework
3.2.1 Highlights of Federal OH&S Legislation
CRITICAL ISSUES IN THE POLICE ENVIRONMENT
4.1 Occupational Accidents
4.2 Occupational Diseases
4.2.1 Chemical Risks
4.2.2 Physical Risks
4.2.3 Biological Risks
4.2.4 Ergonomic risks
4.2.5 Psychosocial Risks
4.2.6 Work Schedules
STRATEGIES AND GUIDELINES FOR IMPROVEMENT
5.1 General Health and Safety Improvement
5.1.1 Changing how Police Personnel Perceive Improvement
5.1.2 Proactive Promotion of OH&S
5.1.3 The Key Role of Participation
5.2 Accident Prevention
5.2.1 Protective Equipment
5.2.2 Training
5.3 Specific Health Risk Prevention
5.3.1 Reducing Risks due to Lead and Toxic Chemicals
5.3.2 Reducing Risks due to AIDS and Hepatitis-B
5.3.3 Lowering Frequency of Back Injuries
5.3.4 Managing and Reducing Stress at Work
5.3.5 Improving Work Schedules
THE EMPLOYER PERSPECTIVE: EMERGING APPROACHES
6.1 Health and Safety at the Organizational Level
6.2 Assessing OH&S Programs
6.3 Prototype Model and Corresponding Remedies for OH&S in
Police Environment
CONCLUSIONS
ENDNOTES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chapter I
The primary objective of this discussion paper is to
provide informational and analytical references to assist in developing, enhancing and
promoting successful policies and practices in occupational health and safety (hereafter
referred to as OH&S) for police officers. The document will deal with the employers'
formal and informal obligations and duties in improving OH&S without foregoing
employees' rights. Strategies and guidelines will be suggested for improving various
aspects of the work environment. These strategies are based on documented research and
experience in police and other service sector environments.
In order to discuss the issues effectively, a
comprehensive literature review was initiated. The various topics (i.e. key words)
included: legal and economic considerations; environmental factors affecting occupational
accidents; physical occupational diseases; psychological factors; shift work; and health
and safety programs in police forces. A number of computerized data bases have been
investigated, including MEDLINE; SOCSCI INDEX; PSYINFO; NIOSH; CCOHS; and the Quebec Commission
de la santé de la sécurité du travail (CSST) information data bank. Supringsly,
only a limited number of rigorous and scientifically sound documents are available on the
topic.1
As is evident from the Bibliography, the vast
majority of articles published could be classified as editorial, or opinion papers. They
are addressed to the lay population, and the research on which they are based is tenuous
or non-existent.
In order to augment the available information base,
various specialists in the health and safety domain were approached, within and outside
the law enforcement sector. These interviews provided an extremely rich source upon which
to position and interpret the data gathered from the literature. It became apparent that a
number of research projects are underway. A considerable effort is being made in the
province of Quebec, specifically with regard to the safety of police. Some preliminary
reports were made available, and the reader will note that a few sections of this paper
are heavily influenced by them.
Chapter II
Occupational health and safety refers to the physiological/physical and
socio-psychological conditions of an organization's workforce, resulting from the work
environment.2
It encompasses varied responses to a number of compelling influences, the most basic of
which is a sense of social and humanitarian responsibility. As suggested by French (1990):
Today, health and safety management is a complex activity requiring the
expertise of specialists from many disciplines, such as industrial hygiene, occupational
medicine, ecology, psychology, and safety engineering, to name only a few. Moreover,
concerns in health and safety management now reach beyond physical conditions in the
workplace to embrace a regard for workers' mental and emotional well-being, and a
commitment to protecting the surrounding community from pollution and exposure to toxic
substances.3
Common occupational maladies, both physiological and
physical, that are traditionally studied include cardiovascular diseases, various forms of
cancer, emphysema, sterility, white-lung disease, physical injuries, and actual loss of
life. More recently, infections such as hepatitis and AIDS have also been considered as
occupational diseases. Socio-psychological conditions that influence the quality of work
life include stress, burnout, dissatisfaction, withdrawal, procrastination, apathy,
alcohol and drug abuse, and other forms of employee escapist behaviour.
At this time a number of factors are focussing
attention on OH&S, and may take it in new directions. They include new definitions of
social responsibility, the influence of labour unions, and a change of emphasis from
compensation to prevention.4
The working environment has to be considered in the
management of day-to-day operations because it affects workers both as employees and as
members of society as a whole. Safe, healthy and environmentally-sound working conditions
must be a priority for socially-responsible employers. They are part of an organization's
public image, contribute to positive public relations, and should be reflected in a
commitment to employee health and safety that extends beyond economic benefits to
long-term consequences for workers and their families.5
Historically, labour unions in North America have
been active in urging organizations to improve physical working conditions. They tend to
bargain for OH&S provisions in labour contracts, and increasingly request
participation in OH&S committees.6 The labour movement is also an important
force behind the initiation of practical research in this area.
During a national symposium held in 1985, the
American National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the Association
of Schools of Public Health introduced a new concept suggesting that "unsafe working
conditions are no longer tolerable and that clear and understandable steps be taken to
prevent the leading occupational diseases and injuries".7
Traditionally, an employer's responsibility was to
help employees when they were sick and injured. To this end organizations provided
periodic physical examinations, hired nurses to treat injuries at the worksite, paid an
employee's salary during short illnesses and, in some cases, secured hospitalization
benefits.
It is now becoming more and more apparent that
helping employees to stay healthy can not only prevent unnecessary hardships to employees,
but also benefit the organization.8 It is becoming generally more apparent that
prevention is better than cure.
Some of the major developments predicted by the
International Labour Organization over the next decade include: increased awareness and
support of OH&S on the part of government, workers and employers, significant
improvement in the control of chemical hazards and improved programs of injury prevention.9
The enormous costs that result from inadequate
health and safety conditions, both in monetary and human terms, are enough to justify
workplace improvement programs.10 Between 1975 and 1985, an average of 1000
Canadian workers died each year as a result of workplace accidents. In 1978 approximately
12.3 million work days were lost due to occupational injury.11.
In 1982 direct costs of compensation payments to
injured workers totalled $1.5 billion and the total grew to approximately $3 billion in
1987. It is estimated that indirect costs increase that figure to between $10 and $15
billion.
Furthermore, statistics indicate the number of
industrial accidents is increasing. In 1986, for instance, 586,718 Canadians were injured
in work-related accidents that resulted in lost time. In 1987, this number grew to
602,531, and in 1988 to 617,997. Recent reports by Statistics Canada show that the total
number of days lost each year due to work-related injuries and illnesses outnumber the
days lost because of labour disputes.12
The additional costs associated with occupational
stress and a low quality of work life are immense. As an example, alcoholism - often an
attempt to cope with job stress - has been estimated to cost organizations and Canadian
society more than $21 million per day.13
When organizations reduce the rate and severity of
occupational accidents and improve the quality of work life for their employees, the
following benefits normally occur:
- productivity is higher because fewer work days are lost;
- employees become more efficient due to increased involvement with their jobs;
- medical and insurance costs are reduced due to fewer claims;
- worker compensation rates and direct payments are also lowered;
- the workforce is more flexible and adaptable as a result of increased participation and
a feeling of ownership;
- the organization is more attractive as a place to work; and
- there are fewer deaths.
Organizations are spending more time, energy and
resources in promoting health and safety in the work place not only because of the
alarming costs of inadequate occupational health and safety, but also because safe
conditions are legally required, and constitute sound management practice.
In order to provide a better understanding of the
accident risks and types of injuries and illnesses, a profile has been developed from
available data. In Canada, male workers, particularly those between the ages of 20 and 29,
have four times more accidents than women. This could be due in part to the fact that most
hazardous jobs are still held by men. Back injuries constitute 52 percent of all
accidents, and work surfaces represent the most important contributing factor to
overexertion in the etiology of these back injuries. The job sectors in which most
accidents happen are, in order of frequency: manufacturing, followed closely by service
occupations (including police) and construction.14
Chapter III
The first worker compensation program was created by
Bismarck in the 19th century in an effort to turn aside the progressive reformist movement
in Germany with the introduction of a social insurance scheme.15
Prior to the enactment of worker compensation
legislation in Canada, the only remedy available to workers who were injured on the job
was to bring a tort action based on the negligence of the employer. Under the common law,
the employer had a duty to provide reasonably safe conditions of work, but injured workers
were often discouraged from bringing suit and so were left without income or the means of
obtaining adequate medical care.
In the mid to late 1800s, those who did sue were
mostly unsuccessful in their attempts to prove their employer's liability and to recover
damages. The perceived unfairness of this situation led to reform.
The first act protecting Canadian workers was
legislated in 1885. The United States introduced occupational health and safety
legislation in 1908 to protect government employees. Six years later, Ontario created the
first Workers' Compensation Board, while Quebec established its Workers' Compensation
Commission in 1928.
Today, OH&S in Canada and its various provinces
have made great advances. Canada has some of the most socially-sensitive OH&S
legislation in the world, as can be seen in the next section.
What differentiates Canadian OH&S legislation
from that of most other countries is the emphasis it gives to the rights of workers. This
legislation allows them to refuse dangerous work, to be informed about hazardous materials
or dangerous conditions in the workplace, and to participate in worksite OH&S
committees. These are often referred to as the basic rights of occupational health and
safety.
Because of Canada's constitutional framework, there
are thirteen somewhat different approaches to the legal considerations of OH&S: those
of the federal government, ten provinces and two territories. The Canadian Constitution
determines the parameters of federal and provincial jurisdiction over the workplace. The
federal government's power to legislate is limited to federal government employees and
industries coming under federal jurisdiction. These include interprovincial railways,
communications, pipelines, canals, ferries, shipping, air transport, banks, grain
elevators, uranium mines and atomic energy.
Each province has wide regulatory powers over
matters within its boundaries relating to the working environment and the
employer/employee relationship in the workplace. Although there are common themes and
trends, each province has its own OH&S legislation with its own unique features. Since
federal government employees, including the RCMP, are not subject to provincial statutes,
this paper will deal only with relevant federal legislation.
There are four federal acts pertinent to
occupational health and safety: the Hazardous Products Act16, the Transportation
of Dangerous Goods Act17, the Act underlying the establishment of the
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety18, and an act pertaining to
federal government employees, the Canada Labour Code19, Part II.
The Hazardous Products Act, passed in 1969, has
wide application to industry across Canada. It affects industry in two was:
- it prohibits the sale or importation of certain specific products; and
- it establishes standards for the identification and labelling of hazardous products.
The Transportation of Dangerous Goods Act,
passed in 1981, establishes a single legislative authority (Transport Canada) to deal with
the handling and movement of hazardous materials by all federally-regulated modes of
transport in Canada.
The Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and
Safety Act was passed in 1978. The first objective of the Centre is to promote
information-sharing. It has set up an elaborate computer-based information system
accessible to organizations and governments and all those concerned with OH&S. The
Centre promotes the concept of a safe working environment and coordinates research and
advisory services.
The Canada Labour Code Part II deals in
particular with the federal government's employee safety regulations in the workplace and
the duties of both employers and employees towards the promotion of health and safety.
Under this statute, "Every employer shall ensure that the safety and health at work
of every person employed is protected".20
This includes, among other things, the following21:
...that all buildings and structures meet prescribed22
standards;
...investigation, recording and reporting of all accidents,
occupational diseases, and other hazardous events;
...posting policies concerning health and safety;
...provision of first aid and other health services;
...ensuring that all equipment (fixed and mobile) meets
prescribed standards;
...providing safety materials, equipment, devices and proper
clothing;
...ensuring proper maintenance of all equipment;
...ensuring that ventilation, lighting, temperature,
humidity, sound, and vibration meet prescribed standards;
...providing instruction, training, and supervision in
occupational health and safety;
...ensuring that employees are aware of every known or
foreseeable safety hazard;
...ensuring that, in all operations, there is full compliance
with the Hazardous Materials Information Review Act23
With respect to this section of the Labour Code,
the RCMP Health Services Directorate (DHS) has recently published an administrative manual
providing some general guidelines regarding an OH&S program. The manual describes
employer responsibilities under the DHS umbrella, the role of safety officers pursuant to
Part II of the Canada Labour Code and the rights of RCMP members including:
...the right to information about hazards;
...the right to participate through health and safety
committees;
...the right to refuse to perform hazardous work.
In addition, the manual suggests the establishment
of a National Advisory Committee and details the Committee's responsibility (more
information can be found in RCMP, 1991). As the introduction and implementation of the DHS
manual are in their early stages, no information is available yet about the effectiveness
of the policy.
Chapter IV
Police officers have long been considered to be in a
high risk occupation. Based on workers' compensation claims in Ohio, Hales et al. (1988)
have reported recently that officers were found to be at the highest risk for occupational
violent crimes, along with other workers directly involved in providing services to the
public (e.g. gasoline service station attendants, real estate employees and hotel/motel
employees). In Ontario, the work-related homicide rate was highest among police personnel.24
General statistics on work accidents are difficult
to interpret. Rates are calculated differently from one study to the next, perspectives
are often narrow, and comparisons with other types of occupations or the general
population become close to impossible as relevant information is often lacking because of
the absence of data banks. In this environment, studies often focus on a single factor,
such as motor vehicle injuries25 or fatal assaults,26 without
identifying police-related data.
In a broader perspective, a study conducted in
Quebec on work-related injuries in municipal and provincial police forces revealed that
the relative frequency of accidents was similar to that of the general working population.27
However, based on work days lost, individual accidents suffered by police officers seemed
to be more serious.
Two separate studies with different rates and
frequencies indicate that the types of accidents most often suffered by police officers
include altercations and aggressions, falls, overexertion, motor vehicle crashes, and
striking or being struck by foreign objects.28 Injuries occur most frequently
to the back, the hands and fingers, the knees and the legs. Recently published statistics
confirm these findings.29
The risks of occupational diseases are an important
part of OH&S. Although scientific reports in this area are scarce, one excellent study
has been made public pertaining to both municipal and provincial law enforcement agencies
in Quebec. We believe that there are sufficient grounds for the findings to be applied to
other police forces. Consequently, some of the ensuing discussion is based on this study.30
Tremblay and Tougas have classified police health
risks into five major categories: chemical, physical, biological, ergonomic and
psychosocial. They also consider four more factors that they did not classify under these
headings: cardiovascular risks (CHD), physical inactivity, diet and work schedules. We
will discuss shift work and its strong association with nutrition is discussed in section
4.2.6. Likewise, CHD and physical fitness cannot be discussed separately, and will be
considered as stress consequences in Section 4.2.5 on psychosocial risks.
Police officers are exposed to a number of different
chemical risks in the course of their duties. These include carbon monoxide, lead, dust
and dangerous chemicals. Carbon monoxide, lead and dust are ever-present in greater
quantities, especially in urban areas. Although officers may be more exposed to them than
the general population, under everyday conditions levels are still far below accepted
government standards.
An exception must be made with regard to lead
exposure in shooting ranges. Officers are more susceptible depending on the frequency and
amount of time spent in practice, and this hazard applies even more so to shooting
instructors.31 Consensus exists that proper monitoring of exposure is
mandatory.
Exposure to dangerous chemicals is not an everyday
occurrence for the great majority of police officers. However, certain high risk
situations can arise, such as accidents involving the transportation of toxic chemicals
and air crashes, and law enforcement officers then find themselves in the forefront of the
event.32
Police procedures for dealing with emergencies are fairly standard...
Basically the priorities are to save/preserve life and protect property.33
But proper attention to the officers' own protection
may be lacking. Procedures for these situations must be well established, tried and
tested. Actions should be controlled and monitored. Detailed planning must be carried out
in conjunction with every group involved in the operation. Work is being done in the RCMP
and the Sûreté du Québec (hereafter SO) for selecting and improving protective
equipment.34
Moreover, depending on local provincial regulations,
some police agencies have set up comprehensive information data sheets on every type of
hazardous substance including health effects, proper handling and accident prevention, as
well as the treatment of after-effects. Special mention must be made of the exposure to
toxic substances experienced by investigation technicians at crime scenes. In certain
agencies laboratory analysts became aware of dangers and initiated protective working
habits. These have resulted in safety regulations for crime scene investigators.35
Physical risks include noise, heat and low
temperatures. Noise is the most pervasive. In Quebec, for example, regulations state that
workers should not be exposed to more than 90dB in an 8 hour day to protect their hearing.
Tremblay and Tougas (1989a) found that even though a car siren can reach maximum levels of
110dB, everyday exposure rarely exceeds 85dB. One RCMP specialist stated that
consideration is being given to relocating police car sirens from the roof to the front
hood in order to reduce the occupants' exposure to noise.36
Cold and heat are hazards that may be experienced by
police officers to the same extent as other outdoor workers. Adequate protective clothing
is required. In recent years an increasing number of patrol cars are air-conditioned,
particularly in urban areas.
Police officers in everyday contact with the public
are more likely to encounter individuals with highrisk infections such as AIDS and
hepatitis-B viruses. In assisting impaired and injured citizens they may come in contact
with biological fluids. Yet no study to date has revealed that they suffer from infectious
diseases more frequently than the general population. However there is a growing debate
about extending general vaccination for hepatitis-B to police forces.37
It is essential that adequate information be
provided to all personnel. Publicity concerning hazards is widespread, and police officers
may be ill-informed and anxious. Simple preventive measures have been shown to be quite
effective.38 In Montreal, the mere announcement that the 1989 International
AIDS Convention would be held there produced an "anxiety attack" among municipal
police forces. It led to an extended prevention program developed with the help of local
community health services.39
As mentioned in Section 4.1, back injuries are the
type most frequently experienced by law enforcement officers. One study revealed that
officers, police chiefs and municipal police authorities were unanimous in considering
patrol car seats to be the most prevalent back-related OH&S risk, and giving it the
highest priority for correction.40 This study provided the impetus for an
ergonomic-related investigation conducted by the Quebec OH&S Research Institute
(IRSST). The researchers examined possible links between patrol car design and low back
pain.41 They then carried out a comprehensive ergonomic study with the object
of redesigning the patrol car. Emphasis was placed primarily on seats, dashboard and
equipment installation.42 As a result of the positive findings of these
studies, municipal and provincial police agencies in Quebec are at present considering the
installation of new ergonomically-designed seats in patrol cars.
Research has also been carried out in parallel to
determine the impact on the vertebral column of the improperly distributed weight of
equipment such as the gun, night-stick and radio that officers carry on their belts.43
Psychosocial risks experienced by law enforcement
personnel have been studied extensively under the general theme of occupational stress.
Although it is not the purpose of this paper to elaborate on stress, a brief summary of
the research in this area is included. This synopsis is based primarily on two
comprehensive reports dealing directly with various aspects of police stress.
The first, theoretical in nature, is a
state-of-the-art review of stress within law enforcement occupations.44 The
second, an empirical survey among a sample group of Quebec police officers, chiefs of
police and municipal authorities, examines the frequency, seriousness and need for
OH&S intervention in a number of previously-identified stress factors.45
Literature on police stress is abundant. It should,
however, be interpreted with caution because the vast majority of research is based on
case-studies, which makes generalizations difficult. Authors identify stressors from
personal experiences or from non-representative samples. Few studies are empirical, and
methodological biases are numerous. Moreover it is important to distinguish the actual
causes (or sources of stress) from individual and organizational reactions (or
consequences to occupational stressors).
Sources of police stress could be classffied into
three general categories: external stressors, internal stressors and task-related
stressors.
External stressors include factors related to
the judicial system and relationships with the public. Among them are court appearances,
cross-examinations, lengthy judicial decisions, lack of encouragement from the public,
relations with minority groups and the general mass-media image attributed to police.
Internal stressors pertain to police
organization and structure. A number of difficulties emerge from administrative policies
and management practices. Among them are lack of participation in work organization,
communication problems, insufficient support from superiors and excessive bureaucracy.
Stressors related to an officer's career profile (such as training, performance
evaluation, salary, promotion) and inadequate human and material resources are also part
of this picture.
Task-related stressors include quantitative
work overload alternating with periods of inactivity, role conflicts and ambiguities,
perception of danger, task complexity, lack of autonomy, ambiguous feelings and the
responsibility of facing misery, pain and death. In the Quebec survey, Arsenault et al.
(1987) identified the leading ten stressors of the 104 that were studied. The ranking was
based on a consensus among all police personnel. The most important sources and
consequences of police stress included inadequate patrol car seats, excessive paper work
and bureaucratic inefficiencies, outdated communications equipment, overweight, decreased
work motivation, perception of danger, lack of physical fitness, work dissatisfaction,
stress due to armed robbery and low back pain.
Other factors that may be linked to an officer's
work have been considered by some researchers as belonging to the stressor category. Some
years ago, Kroes (1985) reported that family problems, alcoholism, drug abuse, ill health,
divorce and suicide ran abnormally high among police officers. Such factors may exert some
influence on work performance and the individual perception of stress, but the vast
majority of stress researchers agree that these should be considered as stress
consequences, although some research looks at physical, mental, social and organizational
health indicators as "stress".
Among the predominant physical health
problems are cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, gastric ulcers, cirrhosis and back pain.
Some comparative studies have shown that police officers are less physically fit, tend to
be overweight, have higher cholesterol46 and higher blood pressure levels47
and are at greater risk of death from cirrhosis and cardiovascular diseases.48
A number of physical fitness and high blood pressure
monitoring programs have been set up in the United States and show promising results.
However, thorough controlled evaluation of the impact of these measures is not available.49
Mental health symptoms most often studied in
police agencies include depression, burnout and suicide. In recent years burnout has been
one of the most-studied stress consequences among the so-called helping/caring
professions, which include police officers.50 In the Quebec survey,51
participants agreed that burnout is an emerging concern, although it ranked only among the
top 20 percent of the 104 problems included in the study. Burnout means that police
officers become emotionally drained after a day's work, that they begin to develop a
detachment from the public they serve (e.g. sentiments of depersonalization), and that
they will not take new initiatives at work. High levels of burnout, when it becomes
chronic, lead to a number of physical and psychological ailments.52
It has been said that the rate of suicide among
police officers is higher than that of the general population. However the reliability of
this statement is questionable. Samples are small, and some studies show opposite results.53
Despite these conflicting results, suicide may be an underrated problem primarily because
of the strong desire among police officers to maintain the traditional stoic image.
Officers may find their job a major source of stress
for their family and friends, and thus their social health may be impaired. Studies
have reported that alcoholism, family problems and divorce may be higher for police
officers. Higher suicide and cardiovascular mortality risks are debatable because of
strong methodological biases in available data. Nonetheless, social problems such as those
listed can be associated with the isolation due to such factors as one-man patrol cars,
varied work schedules and the psychological difficulties of sharing the strong emotions
experienced in dealing with pain, death and other human crises.
A final note on organizational health
consequences. Studies in some police departments have shown a relationship between
stressors and such negative results as reductions in productivity, increases in reaction
time and judgement errors, work dissatisfaction, the desire to quit, absenteeism and
accidents. Stress at work is not cheap, and is reflected invariably in direct and indirect
costs both for the individual and the organization.
Shift work and irregular schedules are normal for
many workers around the world and have been widely studied.54 Because the human
species is essentially diurnal (active by day), a number of difficulties are associated
with shift work. Any disruption in regular biological rhythmic activities such as sleep,
digestion, body temperature, blood pressure and pulse will result in physical and
psychological manifestations that will become evident at work, and also in the family and
social environment.55
Varied work schedules can be classified into four
main categories: permanent regular evening or night-time work (night-time security guard);
rapidly rotating schedules where the employee does not have the same hours more than twice
in a row (two nights, two evenings, two days, rest, etc.); slow rotating schedules which
are most frequent in North America, and where the employee works one to four weeks on the
same shift and, finally, prolonged states of vigilance (10 or 12 hour days; 24 hour duty
for interns and residents).56
The major problems associated with shift work are
sleep disruptions, decreased performance and cognitive abilities, poor nutrition and
abnormal family and social life. Sleep will be particularly affected both in duration and
quality. Shift workers have more difficulty failing asleep. They sleep and dream for
shorter periods of time and also sleep less profoundly.57 The sympathetic
nervous system is overstimulated. Fatigue and psychosomatic distress set in.58
A sleep debt accumulates after a number of days of
shift work. Vigilance, reaction time and performance are greatly diminished, especially in
situations where mental and physical activity vary widely, alternating between overload
and underload.59 It takes from 7 to 12 days for biological rhythms to return to
normal after even a few night shifts.60
Documentation of the effects on physical performance
and cognitive reactions of shift work, prolonged hours and lack of sleep is vast, yet
often contradictory.61 Cognitive abilities decrease and the capacity to execute
simple, routine tasks deteriorates progressively, especially in terms of reaction time.
Physical performance seems less affected. Such disruptions appear to result after even one
night's loss of regular sleep, and become serious in as little as 48 hours.
Irregular eating habits follow closely any
disruption in working schedules. Meals are irregular, often taken alone. Fast foods are
often the most convenient on evening and night shifts. Snacking is more prevalent,
involving foods that are often sweeter and richer in fats than a normal diet. Home-cooked
meals with the family become rare occasions. Finally, caffeine consumption increases
dramatically.62 The combination of irregular hours, poor quality food and the
loss of a social atmosphere around meals may result in an increased incidence of
gastrointestinal and cardiovascular diseases among shift workers.63
A third important difficulty associated with
irregular working hours can be classified as disruption in social and family life.64
Shift workers can easily become isolated from their social environment. Most of society
operates on a daytime schedule, and shift workers miss out on family meals, sports,
socializing with friends who work regular hours or on other shifts and weekend activities.
Stability, a necessary element for a satisfactory family life, no longer exists. Other
family members must reorganize their schedules and activities around the shift worker.
Children are told to keep quiet when the shift-working parent is sleeping. Days off and
holidays may be hard to plan and are almost never an occasion for a family outing.
Correlations have been discovered between working
weekends and family conflicts.65 Finally, Staines and Pleck (1984) have shown
that shift workers spend less time in family and social roles with a resulting decrease in
the quality of family life.
Chapter V
Police officers learn that their principal goal is
to protect citizens, but they must also be aware of their rights and the need to protect
themselves. The two objectives are not incompatible. For instance, an officer cannot
refuse an order to pursue a criminal, but could refuse to drive an inadequate or unsafe
vehicle to make that pursuit.
Police officers and their employers need to assist
each other in achieving common objectives. One way of doing this is by looking on
occpational health and safety as part of the administrative services included in the
training for all police operations.66 It should become second nature to police
personnel that, as they learn the hows and whys of police duties, they also assimilate the
rudimentary steps of basic OH&S. Ideally, this safety training should start at the
police academy, and be included with every regulation and police operation procedure.67
Some people may have a negative perception of
OH&S because it can mean performing an everyday task with cumbersome equipment (for
example, heavy, ugly, hot, ill-fitting goggles), or replacing a simple, procedure with a
more complex one. In order to change perceptions towards prevention, a program could start
with a simple, low-cost, easily-implemented improvement (e.g. basic information on the
importance of systematic hand washing to protect against infectious diseases, followed by
the distribution of disposable gloves), even if this may not be first on the priority
list.68
The following guidelines are some which could be
usefully incorporated into OH&S programs within police services.
- Top administrators should assume the leadership role. If top administration pays only
lip service to OH&S, others will follow their lead and regard the policies as being
unimportant.
- Regional and/or unit responsibility should be clearly assigned to ensure that the
activities will be accomplished.
- All causes for accidents and occupational illnesses should be identified, and eliminated
or controlled in order to prevent a recurrence.
- An essential part of any OH&S program is a good, carefully designed training
program.
- Police officers at all levels should use an accident/illness record system to identify
patterns of accidents or health problems that could otherwise be overlooked. This could be
extended to include rate and frequency of exposure of officers during high-risk situations
(especially ones involving hazardous chemicals).
- The organization should stress on-the-job awareness and acceptance of safety
responsibilities on the part of all employees.
In the development and the on-going process of
promoting occupational health and safety, initial commitment and motivation must be
demonstrated first by management.69 No program, ideal as it may be, will ever
work if supervisors or management personnel do not believe in it.70 They must
be the driving force behind any action aimed at accident prevention, integrating program
objectives and achieving OH&S improvements as part of the organization's goals.
Furthermore, it is imperative that all levels of
management and workers participate in the development and structure of any health and
safety program. The identification of risks, events that are potentially hazardous and the
actual daily activities of the work location (as distinct from how they should be done
according to regulations) require the insight of rank and file personnel.
Moreover, when specialists in health and safety
propose modifications in procedures they must assess their feasibility, acceptance and
real chance of implementation by field officers before they are established and
implemented as departmental policies.71 Research indicates that new techniques
and procedures, which may seem ideal on paper or in the lab, will never achieve their
objectives if they are not used because they are cumbersome, unrealistic or unpopular.72
No documented scientific research has been found on
specific prevention programs for fatal accidents, car crashes or even less serious
accidents. There is one exception: the Quebec Joint Union Management OH&S Association
for Municipal Affairs (Association paritaire pour la santé et la sécurité du travail,
secteur affaires municipales, APSAM) is now preparing a prevention program comprising a
series of lectures and situation-specific exercises aimed at municipal and provincial
police officers.73 Other police forces may be interested in following this
example and evaluating its potential for accident prevention.
There is an ongoing debate about the wearing of
protective equipment by police officers.74 Some of the questions being
considered are: Should all police officers have bullet-proof vests? Should they be worn
all the time? What is the best type of equipment? Guides on the assessment, selection and
application of body armour have been published.75 Both the RCMP and the SQ
OH&S specialists are at present researching the pros and cons of different protective
armour (such as equipment for riot/tactical squad and complete body armour that would be
flame-retardant, liquid-proof).76
On the subject of motor vehicle accident prevention,
a debate is also taking place on the use of seat belts, shoulder harnesses and air bags.77
One reason why the use of protective equipment is
being debated appears to be the complex task of setting official standards for police
equipment of all kinds.78 The bureaucracy and red tape behind this task seem
almost insurmountable, according to a number of experts who have been interviewed. For
example, Damos (1988) advocates the systematic testing of firearms by specialists before
officers put them to use. Apparently there have been a number of unfortunate and avoidable
accidents with new weapons not tested in this manner.
A number of publications urge the provision of
adequate information and formal training to deal with high-risk situations.79
Perceptions of danger on the part of law enforcement officers can have paradoxical
results. On one hand, they may be quite functional and lead to enhanced vigilance. On the
other hand, they may cause violence to become an integral part of the police role, and to
be viewed as routine by some.80 In any case, carelessness and complacency are
deadly enemies that police officers must avoid. As Boylen and Little (1990) advise, the
"human error factor should be trained out".81
A review of cases of fatal assaults on United States
law enforcement officers82 and evaluation of high-risk narcotics-related
warrant service83 suggest a set of guidelines for training. These include both
recruit and veteran officers being provided with information on a regular basis and
trained in tactical developments to counter the variety of assaults they face.
Officer survival programs are also important,
planned and structured around situations which statistics show have a high probability for
fatal and non-fatal assaults. Planning and briefing about specific locations and tactics
during operations reduce confusion and accidents. Response tactics recommended are those
which avoid permitting subjects to get too close (most homicides are committed at
distances of less than four feet).
Recommended criteria include the avoidance of too
many subsequent operations by the same officers; concluding any high-risk operation with
an after-the-fact evaluation and critique, involving all members of the team; and
including in police recruit and in-service training regular sessions on officer survival,
basic patrol procedures, proper weapons handling, self-defence and defensive driving.
It is important that attention be given to
instructors of shooting ranges and the possibility of overexposure to lead, that periodic
quantitative evaluation of exposure be made, and that proper medical prevention procedures
be established and followed.84
The same steps are applicable to crime scene
investigators and officers involved in raids of illegal drug laboratories. They are also
in danger of exposure to toxic chemicals. It is important that adequate information on all
hazardous materials be provided, and that there be training on proper handling and safety
procedures.
In a number of police agencies, manuals and safety
data sheets of all hazardous substances are being prepared. Important elements to be
included are general and specific risks, safe handling procedures, and proper storage and
disposal.85
Information and training are often provided through
a system whereby members of OH&S committees are first approached, and then they, in
turn, extend the training through OH&S representatives to all personnel directly
involved. Environment Canada has published a guidebook that includes data sheets for
numerous hazardous substances. For each chemical, one can find detailed description and
properties, information on risks to health, fire and reactivity hazard, emergency
intervention, protective gear, first aid, transportation precautions, environmental
protection and proper disposal.86
The Canadian Chemists Association has published a
handbook that contains safety procedures, information on proper handling of equipment and
toxic and dangerous substances and emergency procedures followed by workers in
laboratories that may be useful to police officers in specific situations.87 In
addition, suggestions have been made that logbooks and records be kept on police officers'
rate and frequency of exposure as an equally important prevention measure.
In the event of an environmental catastrophe, an
explosion, a major toxic chemical spill, an airline crash or other accident involving
hazardous substances, police officers are often the first on the scene. Yet no specific
literature on police procedures and officer protection were found, with the exception of a
brief summary of a British police agency's guidelines for initial and basic action in such
situations.88 However, documentation exists on the general topic of emergency
procedures and chemical spills, and a number of guide books and a few articles have been
published.89
In both Canada and the United States there are
governmental services specialising in this field that are involved in a number of projects
on substance detection and identification, development of standard safety procedures,
individual protection and decontamination.90
Both Canada and the United States are now studying
portable instrumentation for immediate, on-site identification and analysis of toxic
substances in water, soil and air.91 Moreover, the Environmental Emergency
Technology Division of Environment Canada has developed a remote control analytical system
to assist in the response to spills of highly toxic and volatile chemicals without
endangering the lives of the personnel involved.92
A number of guides have been published that contain
information and instructions on the development of standard operating safety procedures.
These include, among other things: setting up a work plan, preparing for action;
describing hazards and evaluating risks; describing requirements for surveillance program
(key resources); delineating work areas and ascribing specific functions; choosing
appropriate protective equipment; controlling access; setting up decontamination and
emergency medical care and training procedures.93 Specialized personnel
resources may include local police forces, emergency management services, public health,
public works, hazardous material coordinator, industry specialists and public and private
groups.94
As mentioned in Section 4.2.1, protective equipment
is the subject of a number of studies95, yet remains controversial. Specialists
in emergency procedures specify equipment required according to the various hazards, and
also describe the setting up of different working zones around the area, starting from the
central spill or exclusion zone and extending to the outermost clean zone. Protective
equipment and decontamination procedures vary depending on the zone in which one is
working.96
As previously mentioned, there is an on-going debate
on the need to extend general vaccination for hepatitis-B to all workers whose duties
bring them in contact with high-risk populations. Costs for such an operation are
staggering and for this reason a number of researchers do not recommend it. This does not
exclude post-exposure vaccination for police officers after specific high-risk incidents.
One easy and inexpensive way to protect against
biological health risks is to develop mandatory training programs for police officers that
include clear, appropriate and thorough information on contamination risks and protection
procedures. Adequate and simple prevention procedures are most effective. Proper and
careful handling of biological samples, thorough hand-washing and the wearing of
disposable gloves are among the most effective measures against infectious diseases.97
It is not the purpose of this document to enter into the debate over AIDS detection in the
working population. Emphasis should be placed on prevention and education.
An on-going prevention program provided with the
help of local health community services has been successful in providing proper
information and relieving anxiety among police of the greater Montreal area, and could
serve as an example of an efficient prevention program.98 Two physicians,
specialists in health and safety prevention, visited each police station. Through a series
of conferences they informed everyone on contamination risks and taught them proper
protection procedures.
The prevention program being set up in Montreal for
police officers by the local union-management occupational health and safety association
for municipal affairs also includes a module on biological risks.99
As indicated by accident statistics among police
officers and empirical research data,100 back pain is the most significant
ergonomic factor requiring attention. Motor vehicle driving, wounds or bruises,101
overexertion in moving heavy objects, vibration and sitting in uncomfortable positions for
long periods seem to be the most frequent causes of back injuries.102 A police
officer's work contains a number of these elements.
There are two approaches to the prevention of back
pain: individual and organizational. The first and more conventional one is directed at
improving physical fitness. Exercise that leads to stronger and more flexible back muscles
results in fewer injuries. Research indicates that police officers understand the need to
improve their physical condition. Many believe it to be imperative.103 But
after their initial training, when their fitness levels are high, their physical condition
tends to deteriorate with age.104
A number of physical fitness programs have been
initiated in police agencies aimed primarily at reducing cardiovascular risks, but also
resulting in improved muscular performance that may have a beneficial impact on back
injuries.105 Moreover, some studies have shown that physical fitness may also
have an effect in reducing absenteeism.106 Thus physical fitness can have a
direct impact on reducing an organization's costs.
An organizational approach towards reducing back
pain and injuries involves thorough examination of the work environment. An increasing
number of studies show that improving ergonomic factors at work decreases low back pain
significantly.107
A most impressive study in this area involved the
redesign of police patrol cars.108 This research is interesting for a number of
reasons:
- objectives included not only redesign of the seat for better
ergonomic positioning of the back, but also a complete analysis of body motions within the
vehicle in accordance with the varied tasks to be performed;
-
a participative approach included ergonomists, engineers,
driving instructors, car manufacturers, health and safety specialists, police
administrators and officers with and without back injuries;
-
analysis was made of both driver and passenger seating
arrangements, communications systems, administrative tasks, and proper layout of portable
(stick, walkie-talkie, firearms, flashlight), fixed (radio, emergency equipment,
protective screen, computer) and wearable equipment (clothes, bulletproof vest, all
equipment worn at the waist).
Consensus was reached on the necessity of comfort,
safety, space management and prevention of injury. The seat had to be comfortable, of
adequate height and provide good support for the back, sides and head. It had to be
adjustable and adaptable to the height and weight of the driver. It also had to be firm
and durable, and not lose its shape. Finally, it had to accommodate the equipment worn by
officers on their belts. Efforts were required to make the patrol car more effective and
safe when it serves as an office. This involved proper lighting, convenient writing
surfaces and adequate storage space. Space management was necessary to prevent obstructing
the driver, reduce clutter and eliminate projections that could cause bruises.
This is only one example of an evaluation of a work
environment frequently experienced by police - the motor vehicle. Similar analyses could be
made with regard to the safety, weight and ergonomic aspects of the equipment worn by
officers on foot patrols.109
Changes in the psychosocial work environment can
sometimes be instrumental in reducing the frequency of back injuries as well. There are
indications that psychosocial factors related to work organization and job satisfaction
are correlated to low back pain.110 Ebeltoft (1985) has reported correlations
between worker participation, latitude in decision-making and autonomy and frequency of
back pain. The psychological factors of the work environment are examined more fully in
the next section.
A review of present and future tendencies in stress
management programs was completed recently by Arsenault and van Ameringen (1991). The
authors examined a number of occupational categories, but emphasis was placed on the
health care professions. They concluded that controlled studies regarding prevention or
actual modification of the sources of stress are extremely rare, even though most
researchers agree on their absolute necessity. The vast majority of studies concentrated
instead on the mechanisms of individual or collective tolerance to stress.
There seem to be four major tendencies associated
with stress management. A number of studies investigated individual coping styles and
behaviours. Participants were asked to describe how they reacted during certain specific
stress situations. Replies included strategies such as finding a compromise, making a plan
of action, taking action to get rid of the problem, playing racquetball to get rid of
anger, reading a book, thinking about something else, eating and drinking.111
In the law enforcement sector, two studies
demonstrate the variability of coping strategies used by police officers in stressful
situations. When officers were asked to review their thoughts, emotions and actions with
regard to five recent acute and time-limited stressful job events, they said they felt
more challenged than threatened, appraised the situation as solvable (it is their job and
they have to accept it) and used considerably more problem-focussed forms of coping.112
Both age and organizational position had a
significant effect on the type of coping selected. Previous experience of similar
situations may be of great value and stress inoculation can probably be enhanced by
training. New police recruits would benefit in the process by being systematically matched
with older, more experienced officers. In comparison, another study using field
observations of police-citizen encounters revealed that officers used more passive
avoidance strategies, such as verbal denial of danger and playful pranks among officers.113
The second research area associated with stress
management includes programs oriented towards developing and strengthening personal
resources.114 Two types of approach are employed, behavioural and cognitive.
The behavioural programs are the most numerous, and include physical fitness, biofeedback
and relaxation techniques. Methodological biases do not permit a valid assessment of these
programs.
In law enforcement agencies, physical fitness
programs were aimed exclusively at reducing cardiovascular risk (see Section 5.3.2).
Documented cognitive approaches are rare. Information provided is ill defined. Training
sessions with individuals or groups usually include such topics as priority restructuring,
goal-setting, self-worth development and time management.
The study of social support and its role in
buffering the consequences of stress represents the third orientation in stress
management.115 Programs that focus on the development of personal communicating
skills often provide unique occasions for individuals to create a social support network.
Police officers, because of the special isolation that their work imposes upon them, may
be in particular need of such support from colleagues and family.116
Also worthy of mention is the fact that in some
organizations Employee Assistance Programs (EAP) are often responsible for providing this
type of stress management. At this time, however, EAPs are more often developed for
treatment after the fact, helping workers with psychological problems, alcoholism and
recovery from traumatic events.117
The final, more recent and more innovative trend in
stress management involves programs centred on changing the stressor at its source. A
recent United States private sector study revealed that 27% of all organizations with more
than 50 employees offered stress management programs, 81% of which had some concerns with
modifying the work organization.118
There has been little published information to date
on such programs since Hackman and Oldham (1980) wrote their manual on work redesign a
decade ago. Karasek (1989) recommends increased job decision latitude and diminished
mental workload for a number of professions as a measure directed against occupational
stress. In 1981 Wall and Clegg reported significant improvements in workers' emotional
health, together with better work attitudes and motivation, following a program designed
to increase autonomy among work teams.
An example taken from a hospital environment showed
that increased participation in decision making yielded significant decreases in role
conflict and ambiguities and the tendency to quit.119 It has also been found
that an increase in communication and participation leads to greater satisfaction and a
reduction in medical errors.120 Only one example of a program for a
police-related organization was found. The author describes Quality Circle programs in
detail and mentions that the main benefits include:
increased employee involvement in work activities; improved quality of
work; improved communication between workers and management; development of problem
solving experience in workers; improved morale; development of team building skills;
employee development; development of manager/work force interaction and increased job
satisfaction.121
A number of principles can be deduced from a review
of literature on irregular work schedules. It is impossible to eliminate shift schedules
from police work, but studies on human adaptation to disturbances in biological rhythms
yield interesting suggestions for improving the work situation.
The shorter the shift work period (two to three
days), the better the body adapts. Ideally, work schedules should be designed with a
maximum of three consecutive night shifts, or at least a longer rest period immediately
after night shifts in order to decrease the ensuing sleep debt.122 Moreover,
studies have shown that the duration of shift work has an impact on rhythmic bodily
functions.123 It is much easier to rest and adapt following a day-evening-night
rotation than one in the reverse direction: night-evening-day. Work schedule planning
could easily take these principles into account.
Studies have been made of the negative impact of
shift work on diet and health. With the guidance of a nutritionist, a program promoting
better eating habits could be initiated. Stones (1987) proposes a number of easily
applicable guidelines for shift workers: plan daily meals in order to balance nutrition;
take the main meal in the middle of the day, not in the middle of the shift; reduce
caloric intake during the evening and night; increase water and fibre consumption; reduce
fats, sugar and caffeine; and include daily relaxation periods to help digestion and
promote sleep.
Physical fitness has been mentioned previously, but
it also plays a part in the management of shift work. Exercise facilities should be
available to officers during their off-duty hours.
In summary, employers can play a major role in
improving the quality of life of shift workers by modifying work schedules, providing
better eating facilities during irregular hours and setting up information and training
programs on solutions to the negative aspects of shift work.
Chapter VI
The discussion thus far reveals that health and
safety activities are still in their infancy even though legal incentives have been there
for more than a decade and researchers and practitioners have expressed their opinions on
the urgency and importance of health and safety programs on numerous occasions.124
A number of specialists argue in favour of
concentrating occupational health and safety improvement efforts at the organizational
level. In 1989, Johnson and Johansson introduced a special edition of the International
Journal of Health Services dedicated to work organization, democratization and health.
In it the authors discussed the urgent need to change work structures and organization in
order to increase employee participation and control in decision-making.
In the past four years the United States National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) proposed a number of national
strategies for the prevention of the ten leading work-related diseases and injuries.125
Among these ten are musculoskeletal injuries, severe occupational traumatic injuries,
occupational cardiovascular diseases and psychological disorders.
In each strategy emphasis was placed on job design,
surveillance of risk factors and health disorders, the need for information, education and
training for all levels of employees and the continuing need for scientific research.
On a more political note, a number of articles in
the Journal for Mind-Body Health Advances (1989) presented classical confrontations
between union and management over respective responsibilities in the promotion of health
and safety in the workplace.126
Handy (1988) suggests that practitioners as well as
researchers must now begin to pay as much attention to the functions and structures of
organizations and society as has been given lately to individual resources:
... individually or interpersonally based treatment programs ... may be
the simplest to implement as they do not disrupt organizational functioning or challenge
organization power holders. However, if individually focused analyses are given undue
emphasis they have the major disadvantage of diverting attention away from organizational
dysfunctions and toward individual faults.127
Landsbergis (1988), Frone and McFadin (1989) and
Schilling (1989) endorse this approach and encourage organizations to assume their
responsibilities in controlling risk exposure. Cullen and Sandberg (1987) add that
promotion of employee health and safety means not only looking for causes of accidents and
illnesses and repairing damage, but also must include prevention by changing work
organization and helping employers to anticipate rather than react to hazards.128
Moreover, Kavianian et al. (1989) and Sass (1989) invite management to take an active part
in health and safety promotion at work. Traditionally,
... management's resistance to increased worker participation in
decision-making was based upon economic considerations, primarily the values associated
with efficiency. Additionally, worker rights in health and safety are seen both as
irrelevant to the reduction of the frequency and severity of accident rates and the
incidence of industrial disease, and as an infringement upon management rights and
prerogatives.129
Contrary to the above, the literature indicates
strong correlation between productivity and worker involvement, adding that joint
management-worker cooperation has strong positive effects on health and safety records.130
"Employee empowerment" is a new fashionable term in work organization, but it is
up to management to take the initiative and provide the opportunities for the development
of occupational health and safety programs where employees have more input.131
The effectiveness of OH&S programs run by
organizations can be assessed by using the outcome data associated with health and safety
as depicted in Section 6.3. However, assessing the improvement achieved by strategies
targeted at reducing accidents differs slightly from the evaluation of strategies targeted
at preventing and treating occupational diseases. Assessment strategies oriented towards
the physical work environment differ from those targeted at the socio-psychological work
environment.
Section 6.3, the prototype model and corresponding
remedies of OH&S in police, provides an overview for
Risks-Conditions-Remedies-Outcomes scenarios. One should bear in mind that examples of
typical variables were identified in each category. The remedies displayed in the chart
are not necessarily mutually exclusive, and the outcomes might be linked to all
environmental risks. Nonetheless, it provides a synoptic picture for this discussion
paper.
The effectiveness of these strategies is often
measured by the effects of a specific strategy on employee absenteeism and turnover,
medical claims and workers compensation rates and costs and performance and overall
efficiency (Outcomes in Section 6-3). The effects of these strategies can also be seen in
a change in the rates of accidents, or the incidence of specific diseases.
The relative effectiveness of these strategies can
be measured by determining the cost of the program and its relative benefits. For example,
it is suggested that the cost of improving ergonomic factors (e.g. seats and comfort
levels in police cars) will be easily offset by the resulting benefits. Since ergonomic
changes are largely within the direct control of the employer, ergonomics may be the most
effective strategy to use in remedying many environmental risks. Similarly, costs of
training prevention programs and publicity campaigns can be monitored and measured against
outcomes within a specified time frame.
| Environmental Risks |
Conditions |
Remedies |
Outcomes |
| Accidents |
Loss of limb
Back Injuries
Death |
Ergonomics
Safety Committee
Training
Monitoring/assessing
Protective gear |
Turnover/absenteeism
Satisfaction |
| Disease |
|
|
Medical costs |
| * Chemical origins |
Hearing impairment
Vision problems
Skin conditions |
Genetic Screening
Monitoring exposure
Assistance programs |
|
| * Biological origins |
Hepatitis B
AIDS
Contagious conditions |
Monitoring exposure
Assistance programs |
Workers
Compensation costs |
| * Physical origins |
Heart conditions
Ulcers
Hearing impairment |
Ergonomics |
Involvement |
| * Organizational origins |
Back injuries
Burnout
Fatigue |
Altering policies
Improving work schedules
Ergonomics |
Performance |
| * Psychological origins |
Burnout
Suicide |
Stress Management |
|
Chapter VII
The health and safety of employees in their
occupational environment is becoming increasingly important. Employers are becoming more
aware of the cost of ill health and the benefits of having a healthy workforce. Federal
and provincial governments, through a complex web of laws, are making it more necessary
for employers to be concerned with employee health and safety.
The current concern is primarily with occupational
accidents and diseases caused by the physical environment (including biological and
chemical hazards), but organizations can choose to guard employee health by improving the
workers' socio-psychological environment as well. It pays organizations to be concerned
with all aspects of the work environment since it reduces their costs and increases the
respective performance of their employees.
An organizational image of concern for occupational
health and safety is also a positive factor in attracting new employees. To sum up,
effective programs for the improvement of both environments can enhance significantly both
employee health and the effectiveness of the organization.
When the adoption of programs for improvement is
being considered, it is important to involve employees. As with many other programs being
implemented in organizations, employee involvement in improving health and safety is not
only a good idea on its own merits. It is also likely to be desired by the employees.
Various police forces are currently experimenting
with schemes for joint employer-employee participation either in the form of
union-management committees or by direct participation in health and safety committees.
The bottom line from an employer perspective is that these programs can reduce costs in
the form of workers' claims, workers' compensation, litigation and productivity loss due
to disability, accidents, absenteeism, turnover and fatalities.
This paper provides an overview of practices and
policies aimed at enhancing OH&S for police forces. Although the published literature
on the subject was scant, attempts were made to gather sufficient information to identify
current and future trends. The first step towards devising any OH&S program is to have
a better understanding of the phenomenon. It is hoped that this paper has made progress in
this direction.
- Broadly speaking, local and private initiatives in health and
safety prevention rarely become the object of accessible publication: The exception to
this is the abundant information available on psychological factors, overall as well as in
the law enforcement sector, and it refers most specifically to occupational stress.
- Dolan and Schuler, 1987, p. 443.
- French, 1990, p. 620.
- Matthias et al., 1989.
- French, 1990.
- French, 1990.
- Millar, 1988, p. 224.
- Jacobson et al., 1990.
- Matthias et al., 1989.
- Dolan and Schuler, 1987.
- Nash,1983.
- Statistics Canada, 1989.
- Dolan and Schuler, 1987.
- Commission de la santé et de la sécurité au travail, 1989.
- The section on the legal considerations is taken from chapter
14 of Dolan and Schuler, 1992. This book is in its final preparation phase and will be
published as: Dolan, S.L. and R.S. Schuler Human Resource Management in Canada,
second edition, Toronto: Nelson Canada, 1992.
- R.S.C., 1985, c. H-3
- R.S.C., 1985, c. T.19.
- Canadian Centre for Occupational Health & Safety Act,
R. S.C., 1985, c. C-1 3.
- R.S.C., 1985, c. L-2.
- Canada Labour Code, ibid., s. 124, as am. R.S.C.,
1985, c.9 (1st Supp.), s.4.
- See Canada Labour Code, s. 124, ibid.; s.
125.1, s. 125.2, added by R.S.C., 1985, c.24 (3d Supp.)
- Note that this list is an abridged version of section 125.
- R.S.C., 1985, c.24 (3d Supp.) Part III (ss. 9-15).
- Liss and Craig, 1988.
- Harbaugh, 1987; Runyan and Baker, 1988.
- Boylen and Little, 1990.
- Gervais and Hébert, 1986.
- Gervais and Hébert, 1986; Sullivan and Shimizu, 1988.
- Commission de la santé et de la sécurité au travail, 1991.
- Tremblay and Tougas, 1989a, 1989b.
- Tripathi et al, 1990.
- English et al, 1989.
- Herbert, 1990, p. 16.
- Bigras, 1991; Shafer, 1991.
- Bigras, 1991.
- Shafer, 1991.
- Smith, 1986; Richards, 1987; Welch et al., 1988; Tremblay,
1989.
- Kennedy, 1989; Meeks and Brodsley, 1989; Gates and Lady,
1991.
- Tremblay, 1991.
- Arsenault et al., 1986; 1987.
- Coté et al., 1989.
- Coté et al., 1990.
- Dalzell, 1988.
- Arsenault et al., 1986.
- Arsenault et al., 1987.
- Leonard et al., 1978; Williams et al, 1987.
- Webb, 1977.
- Feuer and Rosenman, 1986; Vena et al., 1986; Dubrow et al.,
1988.
- Leonard et al., 1978; Scheer et al., 1986; Williams et al.,
1987; Collingwood, 1988.
- Lavallée et al., 1988; Burke and Deszca, 1986; Oligny, 1990;
Arsenault and van Ameringen, 1991.
- Arsenault et al., 1987.
- Dolan and van Ameringen, 1989.
- Terry, 1981; Arsenault et al., 1986; Tremblay and Tougas,
1989b.
- For a review see: van Ameringen, 1988; van Ameringen and
Trottier, 1989.
- Colquhoun and Rutenfranz, 1980; Stones, 1987.
- Monk and Folkard, 1983.
- Monk and Folkard, 1983.
- Rutenfranz et al., 1977; Hak and Kampman, 1980.
- Branton, 1984.
- Rutenfranz et al., 1977.
- See review, van Ameringen and Tronier, 1989.
- Stones, 1987.
- Jamal and Jamal, 1982; Cullen et al., 1984; Akerstedt et al.,
1985; Stones, 1987.
- Shamir, 1982; Monk and Folkard, 1983; Athanassenas, 1984;
Staines and Pleck, 1984.
- Shamir, 1982.
- Delcourt, 1988.
- Bigras 1991; Pinchaud, 1991.
- Tremblay and Tougas, 1989a, 1989b; Tremblay, 1991.
- King, 1990.
- Pardy, 1990.
- Kroeker and McCoy, 1988.
- Dugas, 1991.
- Devost, 1991.
- Kolender and Leitner, 1987; Armbruster, 1989; McEwen, 1989.
- Frank and Shubin, 1989.
- Bigras, 1991; Shafer, 1991.
- Bruestle and Rutherford, 1987; Harbaugh, 1987; Steed, 1987;
Runyan and Baker, 1988; Walsh, 1988; Moore, 1990.
- Gallagher, 1990.
- Damos, 1988; Boyien and Little, 1990; Gallagher, 1990;
McCarthy, 1990; Nielsen, 1990.
- Cullen et al., 1983; Jermier et al., 1989.
- Boylen and Little, 1990, p.70.
- Boylen and Little, 1990.
- McCarthy, 1990.
- Tremblay and Tougas, 1989b.
- Bigras, 1991.
- Environment Canada, 1985.
- Chemical Institute of Canada, 1987.
- Herbert, 1990.
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1984, 1985a, 1985b;
Environment Canada, 1985; Raphael, 1986; Belore, 1988; Buttner et al, 1988; Goldthorp,
1988; Robins and Scott, 1988; Streutker, 1988; Swick, 1988; Denis, 1989; Lesak, 1989; U.S.
Department of Transportation, 1990.
-
In the United States there are the Center for Environmental
Research at Argonne National Laboratory in Illinois and the Office of Emergency and
Remedial Response, Hazardous Substance Support Division of the Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington DC. In Canada, there are the Environmental Emergencies Technology
Division, the Environmental Protection Service and Emergency Preparedness Canada.
Emergency Preparedness Canada maintains a situation centre to collect data and interpret
emergencies (Swick, 1988) using a process called Emergency Site Management whereby one
tries to change a dangerous or potentially dangerous uncontrolled accident into a safe and
controlled environment (Robins and Scott, 1988).
- Buttner et al., 1988; Goldthorp, 1988; Streutker, 1988.
- Belore, 1988.
- Environment Canada 1985; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
1984, 1985a, 1985b.
- Lesak,1989.
- Bigras, 1991; Shafer, 1991.
- Environment Canada 1985; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
1984, 1985a, 1985b.
- Tremblay and Tougas, 1989a, b.
- Tremblay, 1991.
- Devost, 1991.
- Arsenault et al., 1987; Coté et al., 1989.
- Heliovaara, 1988.
- Frymoyer et al., 1983; Troup, 1984; Tremblay and Tougas,
1989a, 1989b.
- Arsenault et al., 1987.
- Leonard et al, 1978; Williams et al, 1987; Tremblay and
Tougas, 1989a, 1989b.
- Bahrke, 1982; Rogers, 1984; Serra, 1984; Williams et al.,
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- Superko et al., 1988; Tremblay and Tougas, 1989.
- Snook, 1988.
- Coté et al., 1990.
- Dalzell, 1988.
- Frymoyer et al., 1985.
- Osipow and Davis, 1988; Srivastava and Singh, 1988; Israel et
al., 1989a; Puffer and Brakefield, 1989; Parkes, 1990.
- Larsson et al., 1988.
- Moyer, 1986.
- Arsenault and van Ameringen, 1991.
- House, 1981.
- Kaufmann and Beehr, 1989.
- See RCMP External Review Committee discussion paper 5, 1990.
- Fielding, 1989.
- Jackson, 1983.
- Jones et al., 1988.
- Shaw, 1989, p.93.
- Rutenfranz et al., 1977.
- Orth-Gomer, 1983
- Cullen and Sandberg, 1987; Kroeker and McCoy, 1988; Millar,
1988; Israel et al., 1989b; Kavianian et al., 1989; Matthias et al., 1989; Pelletier and
Lutz, 1989; Sass, 1989; Schilling, 1989; Elkin and Rosch, 1990; Ilgen, 1990; Jacobson et
al., 1990; Keita and Jones, 1990; King, 1990; Logan, 1990; Pardy, 1990; Sauter et al.,
1990.
- Millar, 1988; Sauter et al., 1990.
- Heirich, 1989; Murphy, 1989.
- Handy, 1988, p.352.
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